Identity of African American Men Essay

â€Å"No metaphor can capture completely the complexity of ethnic dynamics in the U. S. ‘Melting pot’ ignores the persistence and reconfiguration of the ethnicity over the generations. ‘Mosaic,’ much more apt for pluralistic societies such as Kenya or India, is too static a metaphor; it fails to take in to account the easy penetration of many ethnic boundaries. Nor is ‘salad bowl’ appropriate; the ingredients of a salad bowl are mixed but do not change. ‘Rainbow’ is a tantalizing metaphor, but rainbows disappear. ‘Symphony,’ like ‘rainbow,’ implies near perfect harmony; both fail to take into account the variety and range of ethnic conflict in the United States. The most accurately descriptive metaphor, the one that best explains the dynamics of ethnicity, is ‘kaleidoscope. ’ American ethnicity is kaleidoscopic, i. e. ‘complex and varied, changing form, pattern, color†¦ continually shifting from one set of relations to another; rapidly changing. ’ When a kaleidoscope is in motion, the parts give the appearance of relationships. The viewer sees and endless variety of variegated patterns, just as takes place on the American ethnic landscape. †- Lawrence Fuchs (Literature for Composition 1032) â€Å"Identity in America† was the theme chosen by my English 201 study group. This theme was taken from chapter twenty two of the Literature for composition: Reading and Writing Argument text book. However, I focused the broad theme of â€Å"Identity in America† to the more narrowed theme of â€Å"The Display of African American men in the media. † I chose this theme or topic because I felt that I can relate to it and as a matter of fact, it was also interesting to me. But in order to conduct my research on the particular topic, I came up with the following question, â€Å"How has the identity of African American men been displayed by the media: negatively or positively? † This question was chosen in order to provoke an argument for discussion. I conducted several interviews in order to acquire information about my selected topic. The media’s display of the identity of African American men can be discussed or looked at from two angles: negatively or positively. First, from my experience I can say that the media displays African American men in both lights, negatively and positively. But after conducting interviews with several individuals, my opinion has somewhat changed. I was always aware of the negative images of African/black men in the media. But I was not aware that this display had evolved overtime. My first interview was conducted with April T. Glasgow, a communications major at the University of the Virgin Islands on Wednesday 20th February 2008, at approximately ten o’clock in the morning. We conducted the interview at her dorm’s lobby. I had explained the topic prior to meeting with her, so she already had an idea about what issue the discussion would be addressing. Generally, her opinion was that black men were being exploited and portrayed negatively by the media. She also stated strongly that black men were too often portrayed or given the roles of thugs, gangsters, and pimps in films and magazines. In addition, a suggestion she made on how we could resolve this stereotype was that black people must unite and stand up against these negative portrayals especially those in rap music videos. The second interview was carried out that same day with Professor Alex Randall. His general statements were that the media has changed over the years. â€Å"The negative portrayals of the 1960’s and 1970’s have changed,† Randall stated. Randall felt that in modern times, people of color were treated more fairly and given a more positive portrayal in the media. Randall stated that there were many positive images in the media of African Americans, such as Denzel Washington, Barack Obama, Michael Jordan, and Bill Cosby. In addition, Randall said that in previous years no such image could have been seen in the media. â€Å"We are rational human beings and it’s our choice to choose what part of the spectrum of negative and positive images we would want to emulate,† said Randall. This statement impacted me and slightly changed my opinion on the topic. At that point in conducting my primary research for the paper, my position on the topic has somewhat been altered. After conducting the interviews with April T. Glasgow and Professor Alexander Randall I have become more open minded to the issue. I would admit that I was initially a bit biased and reserved on the topic prior to evaluating the topic from both sides; negatively and positively. In order to decide which position I was going to take I would have to do more secondary research on the topic. Since I started this research paper my observation and assessment of the media have taken a different turn. I now compare and contrast men of other races in the media to African American men. My secondary research was, for the most part, completed using internet sources. The articles that I discovered on the web were very useful and contributed greatly to my research. Three internet articles were analyzed to achieve the secondary data for my paper. The first article I examined was â€Å"The Media’s Bias against black men in America. † The article was basically a discussion of a piece written in the New York Times about the plight of American black men. The author, Armstrong Williams, stated that the New York Times article was another example of major media outlets using negative statistics to consistently cast black men as the scourge of this country. Williams made several strong and interesting statements throughout the article that I thought was beneficial to this research paper. For example, according to Williams, â€Å"The continual coverage of the black man’s plight instead of his progress only hinders his growth, holds back our country from true equality, and hides the truth about the opportunities and challenges that we all face†(Williams  ¶4). Williams also suggested that the American public should challenge the lack of coverage of American black progress in this country (Williams  ¶5). â€Å"In the last century black men have literally gone from being slaves to business owners, government leaders, lawyers, doctors, firemen, generals, entertainers, and educators. No other oppressed class of people anywhere else in the world has advanced its standing in a society this quickly† (Williams  ¶6). I was really impressed by the way Armstrong used this statement to present his argument. In addition, Williams stated that the incidence of drug use, crime, scandal, divorce, and other social ills have increased dramatically for white men, but these statistics are not reported as problems about ‘white men’ in America (Williams  ¶6). â€Å"Approximately 9 out of 10 serial killers are white males between the ages of twenty and thirty five. Yet we never hear these statistics repeated over and over again in the mainstream press, making these crimes synonymous with one particular race as in this case with blacks† (Williams  ¶9). Later in the article Williams explained the image the media is creating internationally. The overseas media continuously places black men in negative positions such as school dropouts, irresponsible fathers, and victims of perpetual racism. The manner in which these stories are constructed and then, displayed to listeners and readers eliminates the possibility of believing that black men do not have positive roles (Williams  ¶10). Therefore, I agree with Williams that the repetitive negative articles can create a vicious cycle of harmful images and low expectations of black men. â€Å"The Black Image in the White Mind† is the title of the second internet article that I examined. The article was useful in constructing my opinion on the topic of how African American men are displayed in the media whether negatively or positively. The article presented some useful statistical data that was quite interesting and yet shocking to me. In this article by Robert M. Entman, he stated that a mug shot of a Black defendant is four times more likely to appear in a local television news report than of a White defendant (Entman  ¶2). He went on to say that the accused is two times more likely to be shown physically restrained in a local television news report than when the accused is a white man (Entman  ¶2). According to Entman, â€Å"The name of the accused is two times more likely to be shown on screen in a local TV news report if the defendant is black, rather than white† (Entman  ¶2). In addition, he stated that while black actors are now more visible in media, it is an open question as to how well they are being represented (Entman  ¶2). The Third article that I examined was â€Å"Black youth and mass media: current research and emerging questions† and I found it to be the most interesting of the three. This article was written by Craig Watkins, an Associate Professor of Sociology and Radio-Television- Film at the University of Texas at Austin. The article was basically an outline of some of the important research findings and emergent issues that examine the changing relationship between black American youth and the mass media industry (Watkins  ¶5). Watkins stated that for most of its history the mass media industry has produced images that distort and misrepresent the complexities of the African American experience (Watkins  ¶9). He stated that contemporary media representations of African Americans can be best described as paradoxical because blacks are simultaneously underrepresented and overrepresented in American media culture (Watkins  ¶9). According to Watkins, â€Å"blacks are underrepresented in many areas of mass media they are over represented in television sports broadcasts and crime and violence related portrayals† (Watkins  ¶13). Watkins said that images of blacks in magazines have increased but they are predominantly portrayed in athletic roles. According to Watkins, African American men are more likely to appear as athletes or musicians (Watkins  ¶14). The strongest statement throughout the article was when Watkins stated that the ‘athleticization’ of the black men in the media reproduces and popularizes long-standing myths about biological and intellectual differences between blacks and whites (Watkins  ¶15). Further analysis of Watkins’ article indicated that when African Americans are portrayed in television news it is generally in aggressive, violent, or criminal roles. Also, a recent analysis of the film industry asserts that blacks tend to be restricted to low budget features that focus disproportionately on crime, violence, and youth delinquency. The repetitious display of blacks in athletic roles creates a limited range of adult and professional role models for young black males being that they are faced with only few media images of successful African American men. The internet articles that I examined clearly showed that there is strong evidence to prove that African American men are negatively and unfairly displayed in the media. After examining these internet articles, I felt that even though they were some positive images of African American men in the media the majority of images are in some way biased or negative. After evaluating and examining my internet sources, I turned back my attention to my English 201 text book, Literature for Composition: Reading and Writing Arguments to get some more insight on the matter. While reading through chapter twenty-three, I came up on a quote from Lawrence Fuchs that I found to be tied in well with my overall all theme of identity in America. I decided to place this quote at the beginning of the research paper a sort of introduction to the overall theme. I chose this quote because it describes the complexity and internal conflicts of identity in America. Speaking of conflicts between identities, Hotel Rwanda is a film that displays such conflict to the extreme. This film was shown in class by my English professor because she said that it was in some way related to our theme and that it could also be used as a part of our secondary research. I did not really understand the connection with our theme until I saw the film. Hotel Rwanda is a historical drama about the hotel manager Paul Rusesabagina played by Don Cheadle during the Rwandan genocide and was directed by Terry George in 2004. The movie is actually based on the Rwandan genocide that occurred in 1994 where almost one million of both Tutsi and Hutu individuals were killed. In the movie which is a reflection of what actually took place, the media was used to instigate conflicts between the Tutsi and Hutu. Throughout the actual conflict the media was used as a tool to falsely display Tutsi’s as the scourge of Rwanda. For example, the radio station, RTLM was used to spread negative and hate messages about the Tutsis such as â€Å"Why do we hate the Tutsis? They are cockroaches†¦Rwanda is Hutu land. †(United Arts. Dir. Terry George. United States, 2004) All in all, it is quite evident from the primary and secondary research that there are both negative and positive displays of African American men in the media. Since the interviews I am more aware that the display of African Americans has changed over time for the better. However, from the Internet articles I have discovered that there are still a lot of negative images of African American men in the media. In addition, I learned that there are still many biases when presenting African American men in media whether on radio, television, or magazines. Overall, the research was very interesting and informative. April T. Glasgow and Professor Alexander Randall were very helpful in making my research paper a success. From carrying out this research paper I was able to conduct some interesting interviews, especially with Professor Randall. I was truly able to critically interpret and analyze the investigation in addition to improving my overall research skills. The research process was a learning experience that I will never forget. Works Cited Barnet, Sylvan, Burto William and Cain E. William. Literature for Composition. New York: Longman, 2007. Entman, Robert and Rojecki, Andrew. â€Å"Media and its Portrayal of Black Americans. † racerelations. about. com. New York. 2008. . Glasgow, April T. Personal Interview. 20 Feb. 2008. Hotel Rwanda. Dir. Terry George. Lions Gate Films and United Artists, 2004. Randall, Alexander. Personal Interview. 20 Feb. 2008. Watkins, S. Craig, â€Å"Black Youth and Mass Media: Current Research and Emerging Questions. † < http://www. rcgd. isr. umich. edu/prba/perspectives/winter2000/cwatkins. pdf>. Williams, Armstrong. â€Å"The Media’s Bias Against Black Men in America. † 31 March 2006. .

The Social Construction of the Amish Community

Sociology 1101 The Amish Community, an Example of Social Construction The Amish culture qualifies as an example of social construction because it is a belief that has important consequences for a large group of people. The people of the Amish community have specific rules they must follow. They believe that the outside culture has a morally polluting effect and that it promotes pride, greed, immorality and materialism. Some of the Amish beliefs include the concept that God will judge them on how well they have obeyed the church rules during their lifetime and that contact with the â€Å"outside world† makes it harder to obey their rules.This is the reason for their extreme isolation. Even though the Amish culture believes that the â€Å"outside world† has a polluting effect on them and their children, there is a time within the Amish community that the parents throughout the community allow their children to participate in events and activities that they usually wouldnà ¢â‚¬â„¢t be allowed to participate in. This time is referred to as Rumspringa. Rumspringa is also referred to as â€Å"running around† This is the term used to describe the period of adolescence Amish experience starting at around the age of sixteen.The parents of the children who choose to participate in this opportunity feel that their children cannot be shunned from the Amish community because they are not yet baptized and they are not yet under the authority of the church. Rumspringa helps the young adults to choose whether they want to join the church or not. The young adults can choose to join a youth group on the weekends usually. These different youth groups have different activities or events they participate in. There are two main groups; one considered the slower or plainer group and the other considered the faster group.The slower groups participates in activities such as volleyball games, and singing groups and are even sometimes supervised by adults while the fa ster group participates in parties and other activities considered less conservative. Although most people seem to think that the youth who participate in these groups are participating in heavy partying, drug use, premarital sex or other extreme behaviors this is usually not the case although these are not unheard of throughout the faster youth groups. The Amish community serves as an example of social construction because the ideas of this culture are passed along by xplaining each aspect of the community through personal interactions and friendships, people begin to believe these strict aspects are what are to be expected because so many other people of the Amish community are believing them and practicing them. Then the strict aspects of the Amish culture are eventually accepted and passed down from generation to generation. â€Å"The Amish people are direct descendants of the Anabaptists of the sixteenth century Europe. Anabaptism is the religion that came about during the ref ormation era.The term Anabaptist first started out as a nickname that meant re-baptizer, because this group rejected the idea of infant baptism, since an infant doesn’t yet have the knowledge of good and evil. The Anabaptists were seen as a threat to Europe’s religious and social institutions and were therefore persecuted. † The idea of Rumspringa first begins because of this specific aspect of the Amish culture, the belief that their children cannot be shunned by the Amish community because they are not old enough to know the difference between good and evil.This then allows the people of the Amish community to consider what the specific age of knowing good from evil is and then they present the specific idea of Rumspringa to the Amish culture. The Amish community passed through the three phases of Berger and Luckmann’s analysis by first; externalizing the ideas of the culture by putting an explanation of the ideas â€Å"out there† The Amish commun ity first presented the idea of Rumspringa to the entire community when they felt that their young adults should have a choice whether or not they wanted to continue to practice the Amish believes and pass them down to their children.Although it may seem that this act of Rumspringa is going completely against what the Amish community believes, the Amish parents do not encourage their youth to leave home and participate in sinful behaviors but they feel there must be at least some room for free choice in the decision to become Amish. Rumspringa was also explained as the time the Amish community allowed their young adult children to participate in youth groups that would lead them to finding a spouse and if this happened and the two young adults decided to get married their time of Rumspringa was over and they were now to be baptized.The second phase they passed their belief through is objectivation. This is the most crucial phase of construction. The strict rules of the Amish communi ty led the people of the Amish community to believe that being exposed to the outside world would pollute their minds. But, when the idea of Rumspringa was first put out there for people to consider, it showed that this would allow their children to participate in activities and groups that they were not usually allowing them too.At first the people of the Amish community felt this idea was crazy, but after it was explained that their children would not be shunned from the community because they had not yet been baptized and were not yet under the authority of the church and that their young adult children needed free choice in whether or not to continue the practices of the Amish culture, people began to really consider this idea. Many Amish families decided this was a good idea and began to practice this new belief.They felt this could actually help their family continue from generation to generation. The third phase of Berger and Luckmann is the phase of internalization. This new ly introduced belief of the Amish community was spreading quickly and more and more people began practicing this belief. More people of the Amish community began to involve this belief into their everyday lives because they felt this could lead their children to marriage and then they would soon be baptized and be considered under the authority of the church.People of the Amish community had children and has these children grew up they were introduced to the idea of Rumspringa and as these children grew into adults and had their own children they passed down the belief to their children and eventually the belief of Rumspringa throughout the Amish culture was now passed down from generation to generation religiously. Even though the idea of Rumspringa was doubted when it was first presented to the Amish community, the people of the Amish community began to actually consider the aspects of this new idea and realize this could help their children and even their families for generations .This is how the beliefs of the Amish community passed through the third phase of Berger and Luckmanns reality of construction. I believe that the beliefs of the Amish community could either be effectively challenged or accepted depending on the person who is examining and judging the culture. The Amish culture thoroughly explains each aspect of their culture and why they participate in each aspect. They have specific background information on why they now accept the idea of Rumspringa.I feel he Amish culture could also be effectively challenged because, even though the Amish culture presents their ideas of Rumspringa and explains that they feel this certain period of time in their children’s lives could effectively alter their lives for the better, this time doesn’t actually let their children move outside the community or even the home. The young adults of the Amish community don’t actually get to experience what it is like to live in a house where there is te levision or dress differently or even eat food they have never tried before.I feel the period of Rumspringa should be widened completely. The young adults should be able to spend six months to year physically living and working in a whole different world and this would actually allow them to make a completely honest choice about whether to join the Amish community church without the heavy influence of their parents. I feel this would effectively allow the young adults experience Rumspringa.

Help Ever, Hurt Never Essay

Everyone should act up to the motto: Help Ever, Hurt Never. Every educated person should engage himself or herself in selfless service to society with humility and a pure heart. All academic distinctions or even observance of spiritual practices are of no use if there is no love in the heart. Love and compassion are inherent in every person. Each has to share this love with others. Failure to share one’s love is gross ingratitude to society, to which one owes everything. One should give one’s love freely to others and receive love in return. This is the deep significance of human life. To purify the mind, one should nurture noble and sacred thoughts of service to others. One who does not hurt anybody and has feelings of love and compassion to fellow beings is the greatest of men. That is why sage Vyasa gave the essence of the eighteen Puranas (scriptures) in the aphorism: Help Ever, Hurt Never. Help rendered, however small, if it comes from the deeper urges of service welling in the heart is as good as the offer of life itself. Look about for chances to relieve, rescue or resuscitate. Train yourselves that you may render help quickly and well. Seva is the most paying form of austerity, the most satisfying and the most pleasurable. It springs out of Love and scatters Love in profusion. To help the helpless is the only way to please Him, to follow and reach Him. Serve people with no thought of high or low; no Seva is high, no Seva is low, each act of Seva is equal in the eye of the Lord. It is the readiness, the joy, the efficiency, the skill with which you rush to do it that matters. Train yourselves to serve God by serving man, in whom there is God installed in the heart. Convince yourself that the seva of man is worship of God. Efforts to serve must spring from agony at the suffering of others and the service must be genuine effort to get rid of that anguish. Do not worry about the result. Help as much as you can, as efficiently as you can, as silently as you can, as lovingly as you can, leave the rest to God, who gave you the chance to server. You should make every effort to avoid harming others in any circumstance. You are only hurting yourself when you hurt others. You should not use harsh words. When you develop human values, you can be free from diseases and even enjoy good health with God’s Grace. Ahimsa, the virtue of non-violence involves much more than abstention from injuring living beings. One should desist from causing pain to any living being not only by his deeds but even by his words and even in his thoughts. One should not entertain any idea of hurting or humiliating another. Service to man will help your divinity to bloom, for it will gladden your heart and make you feel that life has been worthwhile. Service to man is service to God. For He is in every man and every living being and in every stone and stump. Offer your talents at the Feet of God; let every act be a flower, free from creeping worms of envy and egoism and full of fragrance of love and sacrifice. If you have the talent, use it for the glorification of God and do it by uplifting man. A manishi (ordinary man) gets transformed into Maharishi (sage) by engaging in selfless service. You have to transform your life through service. You should give no room for arrogance or self-interest to the slightest extent in your service activities. Install in your heart the feeling that the service you render to anyone is service to God. Only then does service to man become service to Madhava. Hence you should scrupulously follow the maxim: HELP EVER, HURT NEVER.

Ways of Knowing and the Truth Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Ways of Knowing and the Truth - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that the quest for knowledge and its acquisition since time immemorial, continues till date, because, knowledge has helped man conduct his life better and thereby empowered him in many ways. Therefore, it is not very surprising that a number of philosophers and thinkers of the past have been pre-occupied by the concept of Knowledge. While some may hold that knowledge is nothing but the truth, some others have given importance to the various branches of Knowledge and their applications, and quite a few other philosophers have pondered over the epistemology itself, regarding its sources; constituent elements; ways of acquiring knowledge, and so on. It is useful to get acquainted with epistemology. This is because human beings are surrounded in daily life by a multitude of challenges that require them to be aware of their own cultural, linguistic, financial, moral and ethical principles which influence their day-to-day decisions.   Interesti ngly, there has been no single, direct answer to the question â€Å"what is meant by ‘truth’?   In the New Testament, Pontius Pilate, the Roman Governor, asks Jesus Christ what the latter had done in order to be brought before him. To this Jesus refers to the concept of truth thus, implying that it - ‘Truth’ exists as an independent entity, â€Å"You †¦ I am a king. For this reason, I was born, and for this I came into the world, to testify to the truth; everyone on the side of truth listens to me;† to which Pilate questions Christ "What is the truth?"... "Truth may perhaps come to the price of a pearl that showeth best by day; but it will not rise to the price of a diamond, or carbuncle, that showeth best in varied lights" (Bacon 1). Here Bacon too, does not deal with the concept of truth directly, but through the use of analogy of pearl. Bacon implicates that pure form truth does have its value and glow, which is compared to the subdued lustre of pearls whereas half-truths or truth when mixed with a bit of lies is more attractive, like the glitter of a diamond. Bertrand Russell in "Truth and Falsehood" in his Problems of Philosophy, puts forward the "correspondence" theory of truth; this states that 'truth is the understanding that results from the manner in which one's belief's describe reality; and therefore, truth is "a belief is true when there is a corresponding fact, and is false when there is no corresponding fact." (cited in Reading For Philosophical Inquiry: A Brief Introduction, p. 2). Plato initially theorized that 'knowledge' or in order 'to know' something, three conditions - called the "Conditions of Knowledge," namely a) it should be true; 2) One should consciously believe it; and 3) sufficient evidence should justify it (Southwell 4). This is referred to as the "tripartite theory of knowledge" or "knowledge" is "justified true belief" (Holt 1). There are two theories associated with the source of Knowledge: 1) Empiricism, and 2) Rationalism (Holt 1). The first theory states that knowledge gained is mainly based in experience, and second theory holds that knowledge is gained, based mainly on logical thinking and reason. Regarding the ways or means of knowing, there are four ways of knowing, given by philosophy, the nature, merits and demerits of which are worthy of discussion. The Four

Sociology unit 5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Sociology unit 5 - Essay Example JÐ µrry nÐ µÃ µds to lÐ µarn from thÐ µ mistakÐ µs of othÐ µr companiÐ µs that havÐ µ Ð µxpandÐ µd in Asia in gÐ µnÐ µral, and in thÐ µ hugÐ µ markÐ µt of China spÐ µcifically, and failÐ µd. ThÐ µ projÐ µct managÐ µmÐ µnt packagÐ µ shows how JÐ µrry nÐ µÃ µds to lÐ µarn from companiÐ µs likÐ µ Lincoln and ChÐ µvrolÐ µt, which had problÐ µms Ð µxpanding duÐ µ to a lack of attÐ µntion to intÐ µgral host culturÐ µs. â€Å"For many, thÐ µ concÐ µpt that thÐ µ way businÐ µss is donÐ µ hÐ µrÐ µ is not nÐ µcÐ µssarily thÐ µ way it's donÐ µ Ð µvÐ µrywhÐ µrÐ µ may comÐ µ as a rÐ µvÐ µlation. But thÐ µ consÐ µquÐ µncÐ µ of losing a dÐ µal or aliÐ µnating an ovÐ µrsÐ µas businÐ µss contact is rÐ µal, whÐ µthÐ µr it rÐ µsults from impropÐ µr tablÐ µ mannÐ µrs or a propÐ µnsity toward thÐ µ abrupt hardball tactics that tÐ µnd to kill a dÐ µal† (Sharif, 2002). ThÐ µ kÐ µy to succÐ µss is to lÐ µarn about thÐ µ h ost culturÐ µ, and do a lot of markÐ µt rÐ µsÐ µarch into how it diffÐ µrs from thÐ µ homÐ µ culturÐ µ. â€Å"WhilÐ µ any introductory Ð µxposition of a culturÐ µ is nÐ µcÐ µssarily basÐ µd on a particular pÐ µrspÐ µctivÐ µ to somÐ µ dÐ µgrÐ µÃ µ, it is important to find a starting placÐ µ for undÐ µrstanding how ChinÐ µsÐ µ-WÐ µstÐ µrn communications may bÐ µ facilitatÐ µd. ... And in Ð µxpanding into GÐ µrmany, thÐ µ organization of Lincoln nÐ µglÐ µctÐ µd to considÐ µr diffÐ µrÐ µncÐ µs in languagÐ µ and culturÐ µ in its global rÐ µsÐ µarch. As thÐ µ sociologist DurkhÐ µim suggÐ µsts, not all culturÐ µs havÐ µ thÐ µ samÐ µ valuÐ µs. ThÐ µ Ð µxamplÐ µ of thÐ µ ChÐ µvy Nova mÐ µntionÐ µd abovÐ µ, is a good illustration of how U.S. businÐ µssÐ µs havÐ µ traditionally run into problÐ µms by rÐ µlying too much on a cÐ µntralizÐ µd domÐ µstic command structurÐ µ that doÐ µs not givÐ µ sufficiÐ µnt local autonomy for markÐ µting and othÐ µr opÐ µrations. This is thÐ µ samÐ µ problÐ µm that Lincoln was running into in its GÐ µrman opÐ µrations. That is, ovÐ µrall, a dynamic global Ð µnvironmÐ µnt invitÐ µs dynamic rÐ µsponsivÐ µnÐ µss that is not thÐ µ samÐ µ thing as cÐ µntralizÐ µd dÐ µcision-making. â€Å"In gÐ µnÐ µral, it appÐ µars that countriÐ µs that takÐ µ advantagÐ µ of frÐ µÃ µ movà  µmÐ µnt of goods and sÐ µrvicÐ µs, labor and capital can thrivÐ µ in thÐ µ aggrÐ µgatÐ µ. HowÐ µvÐ µr, sound macroÐ µconomic policiÐ µs arÐ µ nÐ µcÐ µssary Although thÐ µ numbÐ µr of individual gainÐ µrs appÐ µars to outnumbÐ µr losÐ µrs in incrÐ µasÐ µd globalization, it is possiblÐ µ that thÐ µ losÐ µrs can crÐ µatÐ µ a backlash that will oncÐ µ again causÐ µ a rÐ µtrÐ µat† (Bordo, 2002). JÐ µrry nÐ µÃ µds to avoid mistakÐ µs likÐ µ thosÐ µ of Lincoln and ChÐ µvrolÐ µt, but this can bÐ µ rÐ µlativÐ µly Ð µasily donÐ µ by mixing third-party rÐ µsÐ µarch, markÐ µt profilÐ µs, and outsourcÐ µd hiring, to movÐ µ branch opÐ µrations into lÐ µaguÐ µ and connÐ µction with thÐ µ host culturÐ µ. In this mannÐ µr, thÐ µ nÐ µw projÐ µct can succÐ µÃ µd whÐ µrÐ µ othÐ µrs havÐ µ failÐ µd. Part 2 What arÐ µ somÐ µ potÐ µntial mÐ µthods of rÐ µsÐ µarching violÐ µncÐ µ

Scandinavian Settlement in Britain Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Scandinavian Settlement in Britain - Essay Example The Danish settlement of the territory of Five Boroughs was mainly considered simply and solely for their military character and the settlements were considered as results of the settling of the members of the army. Stenton and many others considered the hybrid names arose when the Danish army divided the land when they chose it for settlement. There was little consideration for the immigration angle. The historical significance of the Grimson-Hybrid, a term which has been given to those place names in which the first element is a Scandinavian personal name and the second element is Old English tus, is interpreted by Sir Frank Stenton and Dr. F. T. Wainright. Stenton pointed out their distribution in Nottignhamshire, their geographical positions, their historical background and suggested that it is unlikely that the villages with such names denoted new settlements of the Danes, but it is possible that they denoted acquirement of English villages by the Danish owner when the Danish Army divided out the land which it has chosen for settlement. But he argued that it does not mean that the English peasantry had been desettled by the Danish lords. He further argued that name of those villages were influenced by the local circumstances like the relative number of Englishmen and Danes lived thereby. Dr. Wainright, while accepting this theory pointed out that they are representative of an early phase of Scandinavian settlement. ... Wainright agreed to an argument put forward by Ekwall that there may have been many Danes where the hybrids occur, but there was also a powerful English element in the local population. Wainright felt that the Crimson-hybrids represented the movement of Danes from their initial settlements into English populated areas and where they met and mingled with them. Wainright argued that linguistically the Danes were strong enough to influence but not strong enough to dominate the English. He cites example of the linguistic balance illustrated by names, which appear with -bi in Domesday Book, but later changed to -ton to substantiate his argument. However Professor Hugh smith suggested that the names of the new Danish owners of those villages replaced those of the disposed English owners. Mr. Kenneth Cameron added one more dimension while agreeing to Stenton's argument that is of choice of site. He gave examples of Dove and Trent, which were on excellent agricultural land. Mr. P. H. Sawyer, challenging the theory of importance of the Grimston-hybrids as evidence for Scandinavian settlement, argued that Men of English descent also borne Scandinavian personal names in England and it can not be construed from the hybrid names that they are evidence of Scandinavian settlement. He was true in this context. In the history of English it is seen that Scandinavian personal names were adopted into general use and their use does not necessarily prove the racial origin of the men and women who bore them. To negate Sawyer's argument, it can be demonstrated that Grimston-hybrids fall into well defined topographical patterns and that they do show correlations to other names in the same areas. It also can be demonstrated that they are not

Strategic Human Resource Search Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Strategic Human Resource Search - Essay Example Most advisors have felt that the hotel should revise the contracts of some of these hotels in order to keep up the reputation of the larger chain. One of the greatest issues and challenges that faced the hotel chain was the sad reports that most of its chains were affected by bed-bugs (Brody 2011). Well, considering the nature of such reports and the impact it had on the organization, it can indeed be realized that the reputation of Marriot was indeed damaged by the reports which unfortunately were given much airplay and address by news agencies across the world. The reports which were mainly reported in 2010 and 2011 came through complaints on the internet where people reported being bitten by bedbugs after boarding in particular chains of the hotel. The issue became publicized to the extent that news agencies like CNN were able to address it in their casts. Sure enough, in the subject of food and hospitality, tidiness and proper care are simply indispensable (Enz 2010). In such a competitive environment where competitors can greatly gain from any tiny mistakes, the reputation of the organization holds everything. Marriot ind eed lost a lot of potential customers and other strategic partners who felt the hotel was not doing enough to address the very fundamental issues. Nevertheless, despite these challenges, the executives at Marriot have indeed tried to address the issues with a lot of concern by instituting several campaigns to build the seemingly shattered reputation of the organization. The challenge has been great but the Hotel has been forced to invest millions of dollars in the bid to improve its image. Much challenge was thrown to the human resources department in tackling the human resources aspect since most of the fault could be linked with lazy employees. On the same account, much research was conducted on the issue to find out

Philosophy of Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Philosophy of Education - Essay Example The teacher develops a philosophy of education from both the theoretical sources of historical philosophies which discuss the idealism that underlies the teaching process and also from practical experience by testing these theories in classroom instructional practice. From philosophers such as Rousseau, Piaget, Thoreau, and Montessori, the teacher may learn about human nature and the stages of childhood development, as well as the goal of education. The teacher needs to build practical strategies for teaching on the foundation of the idealism of human nature, focusing on social skills growth, mental patterns of learning, physical training, and personality development. From the foundation of openness and the exchange of information through communication, the teacher must also implement a broader teaching structure in a Third Grade class that will lead to well-rounded development of students in all subjects of science, reading, writing, research, recreation, and physical growth. Becaus e of this, I have decided to adopt what is called an â€Å"essentialist† theory of education that believes that the teacher should prepare according to a path of gradual development of the childhood subject, where a wide variety of course materials and instruction leads to the broad development of minds and character through the classroom activities. (Phillips, 2008) 1. Curricular and Instructional Practice For curriculum development in the Third Grade, the teacher will be following a broad curriculum in general education focusing on the development of fundamental learning skills for further progression in education. This curriculum is based upon reading and writing most importantly at this stage, with also basic mathematics being important. The students should improve in reading skills across all subjects, as well as using their writing skills in all classes for essays, tests, note-taking, etc. Math is integrated into science and arithmetic classes to impart basic skills thr ough repetition of practice and homework. Oral communication will be an integral part of the students’ in-class responsibilities. The teacher will be implementing Ohio Teaching Standards and preparing students for the display of knowledge apprehension in standardized tests that will assess cumulative knowledge. The classroom will be on a â€Å"one-room† standard, with both male and female students mixed in the class, and uniforms will not be used as part of the dress codes. My teaching will take place in a Public School district, and as such there will be further responsibilities in the application of the teaching method with regard to keeping the parents as part of the process, engaged and informed in the child’s development, as well as satisfying administrative responsibilities at the local school and district levels. In this environment, the teacher must be well-rounded in knowledge, and prepared in advance for lessons in order to anticipate problems or issue s and have adequate response techniques available for implementation in the lesson. (Atherton, 2011) 2. Diversity of Learners Multiculturalism is the basis for the current paradigm in public education where the students come from a wide range of backgrounds both culturally and socio-economically. Part of the teacher’s responsibility is to provide the students with the basic of good citizenship, which includes tolerance for others, respect for views, openness, helpfulness, etc. Because of this the teacher should always make sure to maintain fairness in teaching methods, recognizing that girls and boys must be taught equally, and that the student’s must learn to understand and appreciate each other’s own cultural diversity and heritage. While the history classes allow for cultural dimensions to be discussed, holidays, class parties, special events, and seminars can be implemented by the teacher and organized in a way that they promote multiculturalism. The teacher should assist the students in building cultural identity and individual awareness within the

Homework2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Homework2 - Essay Example The GDP comparison of the Arab nations and the developed countries broken down above helps to deinstitutionalize the myth that the Arab world possesses a stronger economy as a result of having large reserves of oil. The sum totals of all the Arab league nations’ GDP only serve to march that of France and the United Kingdom (Noland & Pack 152). Even when combined together, the GDP of Arab league nations’ still fall below the individual GDP’s of Germany, Japan, and the United states. These figures serve to show that Arab world economy world is not as strong as it gets thought to be when compared to the economies of developed nations. A majority of the Arab league nations’ heavily rely on oil as their major source of GDP and export. Their economies thus are less diversified as they largely depend on oil when compared to the economies of developed countries such as the US, Germany, Japan, France and the UK (Tucker 526). There is need for the countries that fal l in the Arab world to diversify their economies so as to raise the level of their GDP to a competitive level against the developed

Background history of Facebook and the expected future Essay

Background history of Facebook and the expected future - Essay Example Although Zuckerberg in Oct 2004 intended to launch the organization’s international strategy, he did not have the resources and human personnel essential to push the business to the other part of the world. In August 2005, the organization managed to expand to other institutions and anyone with an institutional e-mail address was free to register in this network (Croft, 2007). In September 2006, the organization managed to go global and any member from wherever part of the world was able to open an account with their personal e-mail address and access this social site. Facebook is a company that has continued to grow financially since its launch in 2004. At its launch, the company was valued at $500, 000 and has continued to grow in net worth. According to its 2013 financial report, the company has total equity of $15.47 billion and was ranked among one the most competitive organizations in the social network. In this year, the company registered revenue of $ 7.872 billion dollars and net income of$ 1.500 billion. The number of register users of this social network is estimated to be about 1.2 billion and the organization employs over 5,800 employees within its network (Raice, 2011). Although the social media network has continuously expanded hence increasing competition, Facebook has remained on the competitive end by attracting more clients to the network. Although Facebook was started as a social network for the college students, the social site has grown to attract clients across different market stakeholders. For instance, the organization has provided business organization with an advertising medium which they have found crucial in their marketing strategy. For this reason, the organization has managed to pull the business people into the site leading to a rapid growth of its customers. The business organizations have found Facebook as superior advertising avenue as compared to other advertising

The effect of calcium in reducing risk to melanoma Research Paper

The effect of calcium in reducing risk to melanoma - Research Paper Example Melanoma has three distinct categories namely cutaneous, mucosal and ocular melanoma (Dorce, 2013). Cutaneous melanoma is the most prominent and occurs on the skin precisely in the cells of the pigment. Mucosal melanoma is common in the vagina, throat, anus and canals of passages (Braeuer et al., 2014). A rare form of melanoma is the Ocular Melanoma that appears mostly around the eyes. Melanoma is treatable at an early stage but if the cancer goes unnoticed, it advances to other body parts where it becomes fatal and extremely hard to treat. Barnhill argued that some of the signs of melanoma include the development of moles on the skin (2004). Bleeding spots on the body and un-healing sores may be indications of melanoma. In women, melanoma is mostly on the legs whereas in men it’s common on the upper back. Women have turned to meals with low-calories with the aim being to get slim. As a result, calcium appears to be deficient in women thus increasing chances of melanoma. Individuals with skin that is extremely sensitive to ultraviolet radiation are at higher risks of melanoma. In addition, excessive sunburns resulting from increased exposure to the sun at a tender age may cause melanoma later on because of damaged cells that are prone to cancer. Some rare cases of cancer history in a family exist where children acquire melanoma genetically from parents (Sucio, 2014). In previous periods, surgery coupled with chemotherapy was the best options of dealing with melanoma. Doctors have recently adopted the combinations of calcium and vitamin D supplements to treat the skin cancer. Calcium has proven to be detrimental in eliminating the risk associated with a number of cancer ailments. For instance, the consumption of calcium destroys polyps that would have elevated bowel cancer. The case of melanoma is no different, as calcium and Vitamin D have made remarkable changes

Importance of work groups in organizations Essay Example for Free

Importance of work groups in organizations Essay Work groups help members to feel that they belong to a group that is unique and worthy to be in. the group belief that it can perform well as a team and be more effective than when they are apart. The groups develop positive attitude and good behavior which help them to trust each other as they continue contributing to the group. The team ability to face challenge is strengthened and the group feels safe and is able to explore and use their best skill and cooperate to get job well done. The ideas and opinions of group members are appreciated and they understand and respect the qualities that make each one of them unique from the others in order to understand what each one of them is supposed to do. WAYS WORK GROUPS ARE RELATED TO ORGANIZATION OUTCOME The resources available are used efficiently without wastage of any one of them. Time is used well to do the duties allocated to group members and the budget set is well utilized to balance the income and expenditure of the organization. There is increased productivity and less supervision of employees and employees are motivated to perform activities that lead to success of the organization. IMPACT OF MANAGEMENT PHILOSOPHY ON HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT Management philosophy helps to simplify activities which results to better performance because when the work to be done is simple, employees will be able to do it well and fast leading to high production. Costs go down in the purchase of raw materials and payment of workers and at the end of it all, profits margins will be high because revenue generated will be higher than the costs incurred in production. The basic skills help employees to do the job well and make contribution to the department they are assigned to work in because they will know what they are expected to do and do it perfectly. Employees will also have the full potential and are equipped to deal with changing demand in the organization. Good communication skills help to maintain safety in the work place and serve customers well. Employees are motivated and are satisfied with the job and problems are solved which results to growth in the organization. REFERENCE Odiorne George; Strategic Management of Human resource; Jossey-Bass, 1984.

Marxism literary and the new criticism theory

Marxism literary and the new criticism theory Marxism literary theory and the new criticism theory are among many wide schools of theory with historical importance. These theories differ in their methods and conclusions as well as their text. Different theories complement and supplement each other in their goals, methods, conclusions and text. The present day literary theory dates back in the 1960s. Literary theory was at its highest peak in popularity in some of the leading universities in America such as John Hopkins and Yale. It is from these universities that the influence of literary theory started spreading and by 1980s it was being taught almost everywhere. During this time, literary theory was supposed to be an academically cutting-edge, and as a result the majority of university literature departments wanted to teach and learn theory and integrate it into their curricula. The goal of Marxist literary theories is to represent class conflict as well as to reinforce class distinctions through literature. Marxist theorists frequently champion writers who are sympathetic to the working classes and those whose works challenge the economic equalities in capitalist societies. In maintaining the spirit of Marxism, literary theories developing from the Marxist paradigm have sought Modern ways of understanding the relationship between literature and economic production as well as cultural production. Literary theory has drawn a lot of influence from the Marxism analyzes society. New Critics in their works usually include inherent moral dimension, and occasionally a religious dimension. For instance, New Critic may read a poem by Thomas Eliot for its level of honesty in expression of torment and contradiction of a serious exploration of belief in the present world. On the other hand Marxist critic might see New critics point of view as ideological instead of critical. They would argue that critical distance should be kept from the poets religious standpoint for the poem to be understood. New criticism theories look at literary works in the view of what is written and not upon the authors goals or biographical issues. In contrast, the Marxists emphasize themes of class conflict. Marxist literary criticism Marxist literary criticism is used to describe literary criticism influenced by the philosophy of Marxism. Twentieth century leading proponents of Marxist theory are also literary critics. They include, George Lukà ¡cs, Terry Eagleton, and Raymond Williams. Marxist theory has different goals. One of its simplest goals is literary assessment of the political inclination of a literary work, hence determining whether its literary form is progressive. According to Marxists legal systems, religious beliefs, and cultural frameworks are determined by social and economic conditions. Therefore Art should represent these conditions truthfully and also seek to better them. The popularity of Marxist aesthetics has reduced in nowadays consumerist society; however it continues to pose responsible questions. Marxist basis of evaluation is hard to establish although it is one of the vigorous and varied 20th century school of aesthetics. Marxist theory has not been able to explain how the political, artistic, and legal superstructure of a nation reflects in its economic constitution. Assumptions from its generalizations have been stunningly inaccurate. For instance the hypotheses with which Marxism explained the rise in living standards of capitalist working class; the Russian-Chinese conflict revolution in Russia; and the uprisings in Berlin. The fact that Marxism fails intellectually is a prove that it has weaknesses in literary criticism. Despite Marxist critism theories having weaknesses it is a good thing that it allows intellectual freedom. Sometimes the authors writing may have been influenced in some way by the state. For instance, the communist world was totally different from what writers were allowed to show. This means that the literary work of time could not be analyzed by simply looking at the authors goal as it is proposed by new criticism. Reading the literary work very closely and particularly the language used by the author would help to analyze the work more critically. In this case Marxism is very crucial because what people read that is what they practice. Some contemporary Marxists such Terry Eagleton have tried to rehabilitate or revise marx. She recognizes the fact that literary work like that of Shakespeare create value because by reading them we are made to think and get something out of them thus getting some values from them. This supplements new criticism theory that looks at the moral and sometimes the religious dimensions such as honesty. Georg Lukacs contribution In his contribution towards Marxism and literature, Georg Lukacs, maintained that the text contained in classic realist writings in describing events of ordinary occurrence and social conditions give a vivid picture of the entireness of a society and its evolution. He argues that the literature of naturalism shows the contradictions that exist in societies and within the individual in the context of a dialectical unit. He acknowledged the fact that realist novels present a partial image of a society. However, he also supported the idea that the value of a novel lies in its description of the nature of a society in a historic period. He also argued that any literary work does not reflect individual phenomena in isolation as modernist text depicts, but should be the whole process of life found in realism. However, Lukas was opposed by Bertolt Brecht, who argued that society is dynamic and hence reality also changes. This is why Bertolt maintained that modes of representation should cha nge accordingly. The methods and goals of representation are always changing in the quest to describe present-day realities. Raymond Williams contribution According to Williams, any literature potraying an ever changing culture has the counter-hegemonic and dominant ideology. Therefore Marxist criticism leaning towards Williams theories considers literature as an important vehicle for ideology. Williams believed that where there was no common culture, a cultural and literary tradition is founded on selections made in the present and shaped by value decisions and power interests. This way he deconstructed the idea that truth is integral in a literary tradition. This contribution complements the new criticism theory that seeks to understand moral dimension of every literary text. He also suggested the term structure of feeling for analysis of literature. Even though she acknowledges that the term cannot be equated to an ideology since it lacks specificity of class and it is not universal; the term gives the dimension of experience more emphasis. Structure of feeling supplements new criticism theory since it emphasizes the experience dimension. This means that the text is not subjected to critical interpretations but instead the primacy of the text is upheld. New criticism New Criticism as a school of thought of literary interpretation stresses the significance of studying texts as comprehensive works of art in themselves. They argued for upholding primacy of text other than analysis based on context. According to proponents of this theory literary texts are usually comprehensive in and of themselves. They elevate the purpose of criticism in academics such as in the maintenance of language and poetry at the same time helping their development. Criticism is very important as it forms an inherent part of social development. Majority of new criticism studies see the theory as one that focuses on close reading of structure, theme, technicalities and the message contained in the literary works. New criticism supplements the Marxism criticism theory in its objective. Marxism theory interprets every literary work on the basis of how it responds to social inequalities. Social development is therefore an inherent part of the Marxism theory. New criticism also gives some focus to social development though indirectly. New criticism theory expects that by focussing on criticism at the academic level, the same will trickle down to the society at large and hence leading to social development. Unreasonable assumptions of Marxism and new criticism One of the assumptions of the New Critics is that biographical and historical information is not important in the study of a literary text. This assumption restricts the reader so much and is often seen as excessively authoritarian. Historical and biographical information is necessary as it can create an experience dimension that can pass some values to the reader. In so doing social development occurs. Marxism emphasizes the use of historical and biographical information in analyzing literary works. Marxism assumes that a literary work is a reflection of the society that produces it. This assumption is not always true. Some literary works may have had some external influenced thus depicting a society in a way that people wants to see it and thus may not be a true reflection of the society. Since new criticism does not emphasis the historical and biographical information of text, but instead on close reading of structure, theme, technicalities and the message contained in the literar y works, it complements the Marxism assumption. Therefore the blend of both Marxism and new criticism can complement each other as mentioned above. Humanism Marxism does not put emphasis on the use of Marx ideology of class conflict for academics but instead for social development. Therefore proponents of Marxism criticism theory believe it is most useful in the humanist world outside the academy. As discussed earlier, the new criticism is so much focussed on academics and not the society. It is so restrictive to the reader and does not use biographical and historical information in analysis of a literary work. On the other hand, Marxism can be referred as being humanistic. It is humanistic because it empathizes with the victims of social inequalities. Marxism therefore seeks to analyse literary works using the Marx ideology of class conflict. The Marxists hope that by analyzing literary works using class conflict ideology, the reader will be able to recognize the inequalities existing in the society and thus can find ways of overcoming them and bring about an equal society. According to Patricia Waugh humanism is not only found in Marxism but rather in all theories. She sees theories as a means by which one can exercise crucial capacities of being human. One can reflect or be rational about life through a theory and in the process one can stand back to make second order judgements about the world and our behaviour in it. In conclusion, Marxism criticism theory and New Criticism are different in many ways. These differences are what complements and supplements each other. For instance, since New Criticism does not emphasize on the use of historical and biographical information in analyzing literary works, Marxism complements it. On the other hand, New Criticism supplements Marxisms structure of feeling by emphasizing moral dimension in the analysis of literary works. Raymond Williams a proponent of Marxism acknowledge values such as truth as integral to the literary tradition.

Impact of Identity Theft in E-Commerce

Impact of Identity Theft in E-Commerce ABSTRACT In the world of today, where time is money and information is a corporate asset, protection of data confidentiality and integrity has become critical. Today, companies are focusing much more on how to secure their businesses from identity fraud, which has emerged as the modern day menace. As I found research on identity theft is rather limited. This research will provide more knowledge of the subject. The aim of this research therefore was to find and assess the impact and the level of identity theft in e-commerce. This was achieved by using analytic induction from the existing research literature and analysis of feed back from the various business executives, industry specialists and company clients through a questionnaire. After introducing identity theft and its impact on the corporate sector in detail, in the first two chapters with the data protection laws; it discusses their merits, demerits, controls and loopholes, the third chapter of this study delves into the methods and techniques used to prevent identity theft, it discusses in detail their efficacy, efficiency, implications and limitations while the last chapter is a case study of an organization where , existing data has been collected from various sources and has been critically analyzed and reviewed. A quantitative method approach has been employed in carrying out this research, besides carrying out a case study of an organization Moreover, aim to decrease the risk and effects of identity theft in e-commerce possible best practice techniques were identified through this research which was achieved through a study of existing literature which results the formation of a policy document. This policy document was also evaluated by industry experts. INTRODUCTION Like Mcleod and Scheel (2001) says, â€Å"e-business creates higher customer satisfaction, by providing quicker service, less effort to buy a product or service, and less business cost compared to a business run without the use of information technology (IT)†. Internet is also called worldwide network of computers. It provides excellent opportunities for an organization to do their business online. To get more customers and to increase the publics awareness of the business, it is very important to represent themselves on the Internet and their products, resulting in increased sales volume and higher profits. Security implications hold back the business. Nowadays, Credit card companies, banks and software companies work together to produce a broad standard to do safe online business. Whereas on the other hand System Hackers are trying to get as much information as possible, which they can easily sell in the black market. Some of the staff in companies also busy in selling their customers details in the same black market. Specific guidelines should be followed by companies to develop a safe and successful appearance in the online business. Some critics like Professor Richard Walton CB, (2005) however quarrel, The rise of the Internet and other modern technologies has brought about a fundamental change in commercial life. He further says that thieves have been stealing wallets and credit cards for a long time, but the growth of online buying and on-line banking has made Identify Theft the fastest growing white-collar crime in the U.K. and America, Its a big problem, and it can happen to anyone. On the other hand, some people are disagreed that the major cause of Identity theft is internet. As per Thomas C. Greene (2005) he said, that The vast majority of incidents can be traced to (what he calls) skimming, or dumpster diving, he goes further to say that plain stupidity among those who own our personal data are also contributive. Only a small fraction of such incidences result from on line transactions. I found majority of research is on the topic of identity theft, which usually consists of some variations in the phrase identity theft is the fastest growing crime in the United kingdom or it begins with a quaint anecdote about the tens of thousands of identity theft victims that emerge each year. According to a report published in the American angle, Anne P.Minz (2002) which says that the consumer sentinel network of agencies gathering data on e-commerce fraud, reports that in 2001 alone, there were 204,000 complaints, compared to 138,900 reported in 2000. It is noticeable that 47% increase demonstrates the growing nature of the problem. Figures such as the ones noted above are apparently disconcerting, in other to glean possible remedies which in turn demands for additional research on this issue. There are so many occasioning of identity theft and different ways this may be consummate. The overheads and wounded are considerable to financial institutions as well as individuals, but the overheads are often difficult to reveal or enumerate, mainly for individual punter sufferers. If an individual is auspicious enough to avoid financial responsibility for the theft, in so many ways they still endure losses in different ways, which may not be substantial; most of the time the affecting damage is very heavy that some sufferers commend suicide while so many others hunt for therapeutic or psychiatric assistance. In an attempt to recover from the theft or loss, sufferer may end up costs more money and time. These two must not be perplexed as theft resembles fraud in that and both engagedin some form of unlawful takings, but fraud requires an extra component of false pretenses formed to persuade a sufferer to turn over wealth, property or other services. Theft, by difference, needs only the illegal captivating of anothers possessions withthe aim to enduringly divest the other of the possessions. Harsh punishment is for fraud because of more planning is involved in that than does the theft. However, for the use of this study we are going to focus on identity theft in e-commerce in accessing the effect on online business in UK. Definition of Identity Definition of Theft â€Å"Theft† can be defined as per English Law act 1968 section (1). Subsection (1), that a person is guilty of theft if he is deceitfully appropriates property belongs to another with the purpose of enduringly miserly the additional of it; and that steal and theft shall be construed consequently. It is irrelevant whether the appropriation is made with a view to expand, or is made for the thiefs own benefit. As per encyclopedia dictionary 2007, Sometimes theft is used synonymously with larceny as a term; however, we can say that, it is actually a broader term, encircling many forms of dishonestly taking of property, including cheating, double-crossing and false pretenses. Some states categorize all these offenses under a single statutory crime of theft. Property belonging to another is taken without that persons consent will be assumed as theft, where Theft could be regarded as criminal act. Sense of Identity Theft In the Identity theft and assumption prevention Act of 1998 the term identity theft was first codified, where the act makes it as a federal crime when someone deliberately uses or transfers, without legal permission, a means of identification of another person with the aim to commit, or to aid or support, any unlawful activity that constitutes a breach of federal law, or that constitutes a offense under any applicable state or local law. In addition, the act defines it as a means of identification as any name or number that may be used, alone, or in combination with any other information, to identify a specific person. Identifying information is noted to be, surrounded by other things, passport number, a name, date of birth, drivers license or national insurance number (NI), access device or telecommunication identifying information. Identity theft may be broadly defined as the unlawful acquirement or the use of any aspect of an individuals personal information for committing some form of criminal activity (Hoar, 2001; LoPucki, 201; Slosarik 2002). This definition is proposed to cover any type of crime that falsely uses a victims name, home address, bank account, credit / debit card number, national insurance number, date of birth, etc. (Federal trade commission, 2004) Formal Definition of Identity Theft Although the act of simply embezzlement ones private information is an offense, the key factor to be notable here is that this information is then used to declare to be someone else. In other words we can say when someone else uses your identity as his own with the ultimate ambition for fiscal, material, and monetary gain. The Internet, the evolution of e-commerce, online shopping, and wireless capability, the explanation of identity theft can be further extended to comprise such things as the hacking into the customer databases of large organizations; stealing of usernames and passwords; the theft and hacking of network login sessions; and onwards. The development of e-commerce and particularly Wireless has compounded the problem of identity theft. Basically, it can happen worst yet to anyone, anywhere and at anytime, at variable edges in the way that information can easily be stolen. For example, Identity theft can occur by an individual simply rummaging through the trash cans at the local dumpster (the technically it is well-known as â€Å"Dumpster Diving†, and will be discussed later). Identity theft can also happen at your workplace, particularly if you do most of your work through telecommuting over a wireless link. Suppose yourself sitting in a cafà © at the train station, and while you are waiting for your train. Your laptop computer is connected to the â€Å"Hot Spot† or wireless link at the cafà ©, and you access your confidential customer data as well as an important work e-mail, but how do you know if the wireless link is for authentic? For example, there could be someone sitting next to you, and this person could have set up a fake wireless access point, and you unintentionally logged into that, thinking that you have really linked to a legitimate, safe and encrypted wireless link. Now, you can see that, this person has all the right to use your customer information, usernames and passwords as a result of that fake link, or â€Å"rogue† Wireless access link, And then you are completely unaware to all of this (this situation is well-known as â€Å"The Evil Twins†). Nowadays, you can see every where there is always a case of theft of identity going on almost every day. First, it was simply stealing a Bank Account Number or 16 digits credit card numbers, but now this crime is going on a large scale, where it affects millions of people all at once. Some peoples working in companies where they are steeling and selling customers full details under the table. As according to the BBC world report (March-2008) on local TV news, that HSBC Bank lost one data disk (compact disk) of their customer details. As we move more towards a wireless and mobile world, people who launch identity theft attacks are becoming much more stylish in the manner in which these attacks are launched. We are also seeing a trend today where large corporations are becoming very complacent in protecting their customer databases from these attacks. There are also trends going on where small, Wireless devices with huge capacity are being used in identity theft crime, and private information is even sold during auctioning processes over the internet. Definition of the term â€Å"Electronic Commerce†: â€Å"Electronic Commerce refers generally to all forms of commercial transactions involving both organizations and individuals, that are based upon the electronic processing and transmission of data, including text, sound and visual images† (OECD, 1997), â€Å"Electronic commerce is about doing business electronically. It is based on the electronic processing and transmission of data, including text, sound and video. It encompasses many diverse activities including electronic trading of goods and services, online delivery of digital content, electronic fund transfers, electronic share trading, electronic bills of lading, commercial auctions, collaborative design and engineering, online products (e.g. consumer goods, specialized medical equipment) and services (e.g. information services, financial and legal services); traditional activities (e.g. healthcare, education) and new activities (e.g. virtual malls).† (EC document, 1997) â€Å"Electronic commerce is the carrying out of business activities that lead to an exchange of value across telecommunication networks† (EITO, 1997) â€Å"E-commerce involves business transactions conducted through computer networks. The e-business literature deals with the technical facilities needed to run a business smoothly.†(Laudon and Laudon, 2000) â€Å"E-business creates higher customer satisfaction, by providing quicker service, less effort to buy a product or service, and less business cost compared to a business run without the use of information technology (IT)† (McLeod and Schell, 2001). Both of these approaches to e-business point to changes in the entire vision of a classical understanding of business. Service industrys challenges Companies are using electronic funds transfer (EFT) for their customers as the fast and secure way of transactions, at present; there are two most excellent ways to handle money online: personal checks and credit cards, there are other fast and secure methods to exchange funds online. Electronic funds transfer (EFT) is another name for online money exchange. Here, the exchange of digital money is involved between buyers and sellers. In the front customer authorization is made over the Internet where Banks handles the transactions behind. To ensure higher level of security specialized authentication systems should be adopted. IDs and passwords are one of the most fashionable methods of data security are in use to access a server or Internet site, but these are often poor. To address this problem, Axent Technologies has developed hardware and software solution called Defender that creates unique, one-time passwords that cannot be guessed, shared, or cracked (Venetis, 1999). â€Å"The system incorporates software on the users computer that communicates with the Defender Security Server on the other end. When the user connects with the server, a software token is activated that automatically establishes a dialogue with the server. A new password is generated during each session, removing any possibility that the user will forget to change his/her password on a regular basis† (Venetis, 1999). This study aims not only to evaluate benefits of adopting secure solution to identity-theft, but also to see that what best practices should be adopted by the Companies, which add value to their online business. Through in-depth research, I will be able to examine why customers switch to new online companies for their shopping. I will see techniques other companys uses to give confidence to their customers to retain them. Although there is a very limited research available on prevention of identity theft in e-business, but my aim is to study how I can contribute from the experiences of other companys perspective. By using quantitative method approach, I will try to test the current literature available on the subject matter. The study is based upon research conducted throughout the report from a variety of sources. The scope of the study is the assessment of tools, technologies and architectures that may involve in identify theft in e-commerce. As the scope of â€Å"Identity theft in e-commerce† is a diversified, so I have limited my research to online fraud detection and prevention methods. Why this research? The Literature provides insights into factors underlying the impacts of identity theft on e-business and failure results: customers lack of confidence, inappropriate variety of technologies structures, lack of ability to control and secure online businesses, lack of adoptable techniques and processes, but lack of study on how to secure online business. Research Questions To concentrate the research primary and secondary questions have been devised to establish a central path to guide the research. PRQ:What technologies are currently in place to combat fraud and how do they work? SRQ:Looking at previous fraud prevention techniques, have new technologies actually prevented and deterred fraud from the mainstream areas? The past study on identity theft in e-commerce was not enough to solve the problems. As the cyber crime growing rapidly, it is very difficult to secure online business. The purpose of this dissertation was to investigate why the organization like XYZ UK Limited not able to continue their online businesses and what new techniques and best practices are in use by others to run their online businesses. What are the techniques that were appropriate for identity management and how well the organization (XYZ UK limited) complies with these techniques? The quantitative data was collected through an online questionnaire addressed to approximately 50 business executives, partners, experts and consumers. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES This research emphasizes the issues in private company (XYZ-UK Limited) regarding the risk and impact of identity theft that company had faced while doing online business and also the problems they had been through in transactions, made on the Internet. I will also put forward what new techniques should be adopted to increase more business and customers satisfaction. To see companies involved in e-business and how to overcome their problems. Adopt new techniques and ideas to have secure online business. Following are research objectives: To analyze, the affect of cyber crime on businesses and with its consequences on customer relationship. Determine the protection level that the company has provided through its security Policy to maintain the privacy of their customers sensitive information and determine its compliance with industry best practices. To identify the reasons that results for the company in suffering loses and losing business opportunities and determining their plan to overcome those constraints. Analyzing new strategies acquired by the company to achieve the level of protection and review their effectiveness in accordance with existing practices. To provide opinion whether new methods for safe on-line business ensure customers satisfaction or need of improvement. Organization of Research This research is organized as follows. The first chapter, as noted, introduces the research and objectives. The second chapter provides the brief overview of literature on identity theft in e-commerce and describes the critical background identity theft associated with e-commerce., and third Chapter consists of Methodology. Chapter 4 Analysis of the findings of Survey as well as content analysis to assess the scale of the effect of these factors on e-commerce success as supposed. Chapter 5 is a policy document can be used as best practices. CHAPTER2 Literature Review â€Å"Whats my ROI on e-commerce? Are you crazy? This is Columbus in the new world. What was his ROI?† (Andy Grove, chairman of Intel) CHAPTER TWO Literature Review DEFINITION OF E-COMMERCE Various definitions of e-commerce are there; the one given at this point is an attempt to relate to this research. â€Å"Electronic commerce is about doing business electronically. It is based on the electronic processing and transmission of data, including text, sound and video. It encompasses many diverse activities including electronic trading of goods and services, online delivery of digital content, electronic fund transfers, electronic share trading, electronic bills of lading, commercial auctions, collaborative design and engineering, online products (e.g. consumer goods, specialized medical equipment) and services (e.g. information services, financial and legal services); traditional activities (e.g. healthcare, education) and new activities (e.g. virtual malls).† (EC document, 1997) While, defining the term â€Å"Electronic Commerce† ranges from broad (EITO) to the very narrow (OECD), basically they are equivalent. A patent description of transactions rather than the scope of activities are there. A hurdle in drafting a precise definition of e-commerce is the continuing evolution of science and technology and its impact on ever-changing environment. (Civil Jurisdiction, 2002) Identity theft may be broadly defined as the unlawful acquirement or the use of any aspect of an individuals personal information for committing some form of criminal activity (Hoar, 2001; LoPucki, 201; Slosarik 2002). This definition is proposed to cover any type of crime that falsely uses a victims name, home address, bank account, credit / debit card number, national insurance number, date of birth, etc. (Federal trade commission, 2004) Some authors and authorities have obviously been some hard work on the result of identity theft to those whom their identity had been stolen; they were trying to see how identity theft can be avoided and possible ways to avoid ones identity being stolen by the criminal specially in online business and to find what identity theft in e-commerce is about. For instance, Mehdi Khosrowpour (2002) defines â€Å"identity theft is a form of hacking which results in possession of personal data and information by the hackers to masquerade as the true identity owners for future use†. IMPACT OF CYBER CRIMES ON BUSINESS E-commerce oriented Businesses are often having a fear that exposing security weakness gives the opportunity to hackers to penetrate into business sensitive information and do the damage. These concerns have shown to have negative impact on consumer attitudes toward using the Internet to make purchases. (Koufaris, 2002) The outcome is failure in doing business online. The losses can be divided into â€Å"direct† and â€Å"indirect losses†. The complete impact of identity theft is not completely understood so far, but latest researches importance the fast development and major costs linked with the offense have discussed and looking to solve it. Near the beginning debate around identity theft relied on subjective proof which is mainly reported by the popular press Identity theft is in many ways a more harmful act that can have continuous effects on major financial effect on merchants as well as on customers. Recent studies have found that identity theft victims often suffer the same emotional consequences as victims of other crimes. The crime of identity theft can be difficult to track because it takes many forms and is used to facilitate other crimes, such as credit card fraud, immigration fraud, Internet scams, and terrorism. Identity fraud arises when someone takes over fictitious name or adopts the name of another person with or without their consent Rt Hon David Blunkett MP (2002) DIRECT LOSSES Direct losses can be defined as losses in terms of monetary value. Reflection of such costs can be seen as incorporated costs of the market incentives faced by such parties addressing the issue. Surveys conducted by experts show the range of financial losses that the businesses have suffered. Identity theft losses to companies are over two times greater whereas to consumers three times that are linked with conventional payment deception. Analysis of recent consumer surveys has suggested that while users may view the internet as a marketing channel valued for its convenience and ease of use for shopping, security and privacy issues are very influential on decisions to buy online†. (Smith and Rupp, 2002a, b) In e-businesses associated fraud losses are also normally charged back to merchants. From the perspective of the credit card issuer, the cost of identity theft for illegally purchased products is most likely to be claimed against the applicable retailers by the credit card issuer. Internet merchants fraud-related costs are high, and when those costs are combined with growing consumer fears of identity theft it results in significant damage to the business. For consumers, the main impact of identity theft is the unauthorized use of their credit card accounts that could make them suffer financial losses. Corporate identity theft provides perpetrators to conduct industrial sabotage resulting in possible fines to businesses for breach of regulatory rules. Another form of direct losses is the loss of data, according to studies data breaches cost companies losses in terms of administrative performance, management defections and loss of critical and sensitive business data as well as customer data. It will also allow consumers to sue if their personal information is improperly taken from online transactions (Tillman, 2002). It also results in cost overheads for companies to implement preventive measures and techniques. Additionally there will be costs for the recovery of loss-data. It also impacts the company to continue its business processes, above all companies may go out of business because of major data-loss. One more category of direct loss is the loss of equipments and products, since it is very easy for id theft criminal to divert the delivery or shipment of goods by having unauthorized access to the place where it is convenient to pick it up. INDIRECT LOSSES There could be many indirect losses because of identity theft. For example, the time and resources spent on corrective action after the identities and personal information have compromised. However, the ultimate indirect loss, in this regard is, the loss of goodwill, company reputation, customer confidence and relationship with trading partners. Reputation is one of trustworthy behaviour and plays an important part in determining the willingness of others to enter into an exchange with a given actor (Grabner-Kraeuter, 2002, p. 48). It has also estimated that businesses fear to accept large number of orders because of their susceptibility, especially they turn away overseas transactions and hence get to lose business. The combination of financial losses coupled with reputation and customer trust provide great level of damage to the e-businesses. In terms of reputation, it can said that any e-commerce scandal will become headline of news immediately and the media is always curious about such scandals, thus the publicity of any such incident ruins the company reputation largely. Consumers always worry about their privacy. Many researchers have found that, a majority of internet users worry about spreading of personal data, because the person stealing someones data can use it to misuse the bank accounts, conduct a crime using the details of somebody else, can easily get away from worst situations or can even cross countries borders using fake identities, all of the above can create problem for the person whose identity has been used for all such crimes. Liability issues are always in concern when companies are dealing with trading partners or doing the business within a country having strict laws for companies to be found liable if they do not protect their own and critical information of others. Theft of corporate identities may adversely affect morale of third party employees as well as the competitive advantages that a company may have with its trading partners. Using a network perspective, concerning interrelationships between people and organizations, economic relationships between organizations embedded in networks of social relationships (Galaskiewicz, 1985; Granovetter, 1985; Uzzi, 1997). Improper handling of information can also take companies to court where they can held accountable for negligence and can face severe fines including imprisonments. Another aspect of indirect loss is the damage to the credit history of both customers and businesses. Businesses will no longer be able to obtain business loans to boost their business and also cannot obtain insurance benefits from insurance companies. Similar things happens to customers, once their history has been marked susceptible they cannot obtain bank loans, credit cards, health claims and even a better carrier. In summary, the above psychoanalysis shows a picture what an individual or a business might suffer from if cyber criminals steal their identities. E-commerce and Main Categories Nowadays businesses are using heterogeneous computer environments to integrate their proprietary systems with the external world. Database servers and application servers supported with middleware to interface with online connections; these include HR management, supply chain management and customer relationship management. Through electronic networks where the purpose is to achieve businesses, E-Commerce can be separated into major categories: Business-to-Business (B-TO-B) relationship Business-to-Customer (B-TO-C) relationship Business-to-Government (B-TO-G) relationship Consumer-to-Consumer (C-TO-C) relationship Mobile Commerce (m-commerce) relationship The two core categories are Business to Business and Business to Customer. Business to Customer (B-TO-C) B-TO-C e-commerce is a part of the business, which deals with commercial activities between companies and customers. Companies can easily make their strategies according to the needs and requirements of customers, based on analysis of customers statistics in this model, these statistics can be based on marketing, sales and customer service components (e.g. ordering, online assisting, delivering and customers interaction etc.). E-tailing The most common form of business-to-consumer (B2C) transaction is E-tailing. (Electronic retailing) It is the selling of sellable merchandise over the Internet. E-Tailing: Revolutionary Trends in E-Business Recent studies have found that 1997 was the first big year for e-tailing. Dell Computers claimed as they processed a multimillion dollar orders taken through their Web site. In 1996, was the success for Amazon.com welcomed Noble Barnes to launch its E-business site whereas, Commerce Net/Nielsen Media disclosed that 10 million customers had completed purchases on-line. A systematic approach in this regard, needs a good combination of business strategies and dynamic networks. â€Å"The total of these structures is called a dynamic strategic network† (Dyke, 1998). One of the best examples of B-to-C e-commerce is Amazon.com, an online bookstore that launched its site in 1995. The benefits of B-TO-C e-commerce includes that it provides instantaneous communication between consumer and trader as well as products and services can be access globally and transactions happens in real time, whereas the risk includes, the confidentiality and privacy of customers information. Business-to-business (B2B) and business-to-customer (B2C) transactions are used in e-commerce and is a type of online shopping. Advantages of B2C e-commerce; The subsequent advantages are: Shopping can be quicker and expedient. Prices and Offers can alter immediately. The website can be incorporated with Call centers directly. The buying experience will be improved by Broadband communications. Background of E-Shopping E-Shopping was in

Ambush :: essays research papers

The short story â€Å"Ambush† by Tim O’Brien is a story about a young American soldier, O’Brien, in the Vietnam War. While on watch O’Brien spots a young enemy soldier approaching his position. He throws a grenade and kills the young man. Years later O’Brien’s is faced with the decision of answering his daughter when she asks him if he ever killed anyone in the war. Not only was killing the man a tough decision, but now O’Brien must answer his daughter. Ultimately he lies to her and I think that is the correct choice in that situation. O’Brien’s daughter is only nine years old when she asks her father that painful question. I believe that the taking of someone else’s life is such a life changing event that it should only be discussed by mature adults. If O’Brien chooses to tell his daughter the truth when she is older, that is okay; that is what I would do. Later in his life O’Brien thinks back and tries to sort out the mixed up issues of the foggy dawn in Vietnam. Sometimes he believe that the young man would have just kept walking and never seen him, but sometimes he believes he did the right thing and forgives himself. Although I don’t know any war veterans, and I have never killed anyone, there was an event in my life similar to the one in this story. When I was in third grade my dad was electrocuted and actually was clinically dead. He was later revived and when my mom talked to him the hospital he told her some far out things. She has briefly mentioned some of them to me throughout my life, but I

Wealth and Poverty :: Essays on Poverty

Wealth and Poverty The christen teaching on wealth and poverty is that all men should be equal and thus every one should have the same amount of money as everyone else and that good christens should give away their wealth to people that were poorer than them selves. In the bible Jesus said to a man who asked what he should do to enter into heaven: "Go thy way, sell whatsoever thou hast, and give to the poor, and thou shalt have treasure in heaven: and come, take up the cross, and follow me." (Mark 7: 21) . Although Jesus did not condemn wealth, he merely taught how hard it is for a wealth man to "how hard is it for them that trust in riches to enter into the kingdom of God! It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God". After he said this, his disciples where shocked: "And they were astonished out of measure, saying among themselves, Who then can be saved? And Jesus looking upon them saith, with men it is impossible, but not with God: for with God all things are possible." (Mark 10:27). The disciples where so astonished because the teachings of the time stated that riches where given by god as assign of approval. Amos, a profit acknowledged by both the Christian and Jewish religions. Amos also sheared Jesus' view that it was very hard for rich people to get into heaven, but not because of their riches alone, but because of the way that they acted. He believed that the rich should give aid to the poor, and he taught that social injustices such as this were a sin and he considered that the rich peoples worship to be a sham. Of all the people that caused injustices Amos said that the rich wives where responsible for the most, and he often called them 'The Cows Of Bashan' There is need for world development because there are over 600 million

Attacking Wifi Nets with Traffic Injection

I am very much thankful to him. I benefited a lot discussing with him. I am also thankful to my parents who encouraged me and provided such a motivation, so I became able to perform this. I am also thankful to all my friends and those who helped me directly or indirectly in completion of my project. CONTENTS †¢Introduction †¢Crime Definition †¢Laws that have been violated †¢Possible Punishments (IT ACT + INTERNATIONAL LAWS) †¢Unlawful Losses and Gains †¢Working of Attacks †¢Description of Tools INTRODUCTION This term paper is based on â€Å"attacking wifi nets with traffic injection† also nown as packet injection which simply means the hacking of wireless networks with different techniques to send extra amount of traffic (packets, frames, duplicate copies) on a network by which a hacker can able to access the information and identity that a client is using. Some techniques are wireless network sniffing, DOS (denial of service attack), Man in the middle attack etc. Attacks on wireless LANs (WLAN’s) and wireless-enabled laptops are a quick and easy way for hackers to steal data and enter the corporate network.Many types of tools are used to perform hacking. Some of them are named as aircrack-ng, airjack etc. thts paper will later give brief information on tools used , working of tools ,losses and gains with hacking etc. These type of attacks are known as INTEGRITY attacks. Wireless networks broadcast their packets using radio frequency or optical wavelengths. A modern laptop computer can listen in. Worse, an attacker can manufacture new packets on the fly and persuade wireless stations to accept his packets as legitimate. We already know 802. 11 networks are weak.Open networks are prone to any well-known LAN perimeter attack WEP is vulnerable. Traffic injection has changed things like †¢Increased DoS (denial of service) capabilities †¢Dramatically decreased WEP cracking achievement time †¢Allows traf fic tampering †¢Allows stations attacks CRIME DEFINITION Cyber Crime –A crime where the computer is used as a tool or target. Cyber crime encompasses any criminal act dealing with computers and networks (called hacking). Additionally, cyber crime also includes traditional crimes conducted through the Internet.For example; hate crimes, telemarketing and Internet fraud, identity theft, and credit card account thefts are considered to be cyber crimes when the illegal activities are committed through the use of a computer and the Internet. Hacking – Traffic injection attacks comes under hacking. It is defined as whomever with the intent to cause or knowing that he is likely to cause wrongful loss or damage to the public or any person destroys or deletes or alters any information residing in a computer resource or diminishes its value or utility or affects it injuriously by any means, commits hacking.Hacking may also occur when a person willfully, knowingly, and withou t authorization or without reasonable grounds to believe that he or she has such authorization, destroys data, computer programs, or supporting documentation residing or existing internal or external to a computer, computer system, or computer network. Besides the destruction of such data, hacking may also be defined to include the disclosure, use or taking of the data commits an offense against intellectual property.This paper is a survey of wireless attack tools focusing on 802. 11 and Bluetooth. It includes attack tools for three major categories: confidentiality, integrity, and availability. Confidentiality attack tools focus on the content of the data and are best known for encryption cracking. Integrity attacks tools focus on the data in transmission and include frame insertion, man in the middle, and replay attacks. Finally, availability attack tools focus on Denial of Service (DoS) attacks. Law That Have Been ViolatedThe laws that have been violated are section 43,65 and 66 of IT ACT 2000. Section 43 of IT ACT 2000, defines as If any person without permission of the owner or any other person who is in charge of a computer, computer system or computer network, — (a) Accesses or secures access to such computer, computer system or computer Network; (b) Downloads, copies or extracts any data, computer data base or information from such computer, computer system or computer network including information or data held or stored in any removable storage medium; c) Introduces or causes to be introduced any computer contaminant or computer virus into any computer, computer system or computer network; (d) Damages or causes to be damaged any computer, computer system or computer network, data, computer data base or any other programs residing in such computer, computer system or computer network; (e) Disrupts or causes disruption of any computer, computer system or computer network; (f) Denies or causes the denial of access to any person authorized to acces s any computer, computer system or computer network by any means; g) Provides any assistance to any person to facilitate access to a computer, computer system or computer network in contravention of the provisions of this Act, rules or regulations made there under; (h) Charges the services availed of by a person to the account of another person by tampering with or manipulating any computer, computer system, or computer network, Section 65 of IT ACT 2000, defines as, Tampering with computer source documentsWhoever knowingly or intentionally conceals, destroys or alters or intentionally or knowingly causes another to conceal, destroy or alter any computer source code used for a computer, computer programs, computer system or computer network, when the computer source code is required to be kept or maintained by law for the time being in force, shall be punishable with imprisonment up to three years, or with fine which may extend up to two lakh rupees, or with both. Section 66 of IT A CT 2000, defines as, (1) Whoever with the intent to cause or knowing that he is likely to cause rongful loss or damage to the public or any person destroys or deletes or alters any information residing in a computer resource or diminishes its value or utility or affects it injuriously by any means, commits hacking. (2) Whoever commits hacking shall be punished with imprisonment up to three years, or with fine which may extend up to two lakh rupees, or with both. POSSIBLE PUNISHMENTS (IT ACT + International laws) Cyber crime is a type of crime that not only destroys the security system of a country but also its financial system. One supporter of legislation against cyber crime, Rep.Lamar Smith (R-Texas), stated, â€Å"Our mouse can be just as dangerous as a bullet or a bomb. † Cyber attackers should be penalized and punished severely and most cyber crimes have penalties reflecting the severity of the crime committed. Although in the past many laws against cyber crimes were ins ufficient, law enforcement agencies and governments have recently proposed many innovative plans for fighting cyber crimes. Punishment Cybercrime must be dealt with very seriously because it causes a lot of damage to businesses and the actual punishment should depend on the type of fraud used.The penalty for illegally accessing a computer system ranges from 6 months to 5 years. The penalty for the unofficial modification on a computer ranges from 5 to 10 years. Other penalties are listed below: Telecommunication service theft: The theft of telecommunication services is a very common theft and is punished with a heavy fine and imprisonment. Communications intercept crime: This is a Class-D crime which is followed by a severe punishment of 1 to 5 years of imprisonment with a fine.Other cyber crimes like telecommunication piracy, offensive material dissemination, and other cyber frauds also belong to this category. Information Technology Act-2000: According to this act, different penal ties are available for different crimes. Some of the penalties are as follows: Computer source document tampering: The person who changes the source code on the website or any computer program will get a punishment up to 3 years of imprisonment or fine. Computer hacking: The individual who hacks the computer or computer devices will get an imprisonment up to 3 years or a fine.Government protected system: An act of trying to gain access to a system which is a protected system by the government, will result in imprisonment for 10 years and a heavy fine. The introduction of such penalties have lead to a drastic reduction in the cyber crime rates as more and more criminals are becoming aware of the penalties related to them. Spreading the word about the penalties of cyber crime can serve as a deterrent against such crime. Penalties relating to cyber crime will vary depending on the country and legislation in place. Punishments according to IT ACT 2000The person who commits the crime sha ll be liable to pay damages by way of compensation not exceeding one crore rupees to the person so affected according to section 43 of IT ACT. The person who commits the crime shall be punishable with imprisonment up to three years, or with fine which may extend up to two lakh rupees, or with both according to section 65 of IT ACT. Whoever commits hacking shall be punished with imprisonment up to three years, or with fine which may extend up to two lakh rupees, or with both according to section 66 of IT ACT 2000 INTERNATIONAL LAWS In USA section 18 U. S. C.  § 1030 A) a fine under this title or imprisonment for not more than ten years, or both, in the case of an offense under subsection (a)(1) of this section which does not occur after a conviction for another offense under this section, or an attempt to commit an offense punishable under this subparagraph; and (B) a fine under this title or imprisonment for not more than twenty years, or both, in the case of an offense under subs ection (a)(1) of this section which occurs after a conviction for another offense under this section, or an attempt to commit an offense punishable under this subparagraph; In CanadaThe person who commits the crime is guilty of an indictable offence and liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding ten years, or is guilty of an offence punishable on summary conviction. UNLAWFUL LOSSES AND GAINS Losses due to hacking Hackers targeted major companies including Sony, RSA Security, and Citigroup, but also governmental websites and smaller firms. Many companies could have prevented the attacks. Because of their vulnerabilities, they not only lost money, but also risked losing clients, prestige and market share. Multitudes of people were affected by their security breaches Recent reports showed hackers earned $12. billion in 2011, mainly by spamming, phishing, and online frauds. Some companies have made their financial losses public, while others chose not to disclose them. Here’ s a top 5 of the declared losses caused by hackings from last year until present. Undeclared losses may even exceed these ones. 1. $171 million – Sony Hacked in April to June 2011, Sony is by far the most famous recent security attack. After its Playstation network was shut down by LulzSec, Sony reportedly lost almost $171 million. The hack affected 77 million accounts and is still considered the worst gaming community data breach ever.Attackers stole valuable information: full names, logins, passwords, e-mails, home addresses, purchase history, and credit card numbers. 2. $2. 7 million – Citigroup Hacked in June 2011, Citigroup was not a difficult target for hackers. They exploited a basic online vulnerability and stole account information from 200,000 clients. Because of the hacking, Citigroup said it lost $2. 7 million. Just a few months before the attack, the company was affected by another security breach. It started at Epsilon, an email marketing provider for 2,5 00 large companies including Citigroup.Specialists estimated that the Epsilon breach affected millions of people and produced an overall $4 billion loss. 3. $2 million – Stratfor Last Christmas wasn’t so joyful for Stratfor Global Intelligence. Anonymous members hacked the US research group and published confidential information from 4,000 clients, threatening they could also give details about 90,000 credit card accounts. The hackers stated that Stratfor was â€Å"clueless†¦when it comes to database security†. According to the criminal complaint, the hack cost Stratfor $2 million. 4. $2 million – AT&T The US carrier was hacked last year, but said no account information was exposed.They said they warned one million customers about the security breach. Money stolen from the hacked business accounts was used by a group related to Al Qaeda to fund terrorist attacks in Asia. According to reports, refunding costumers cost AT&T almost $2 million. 5 . $1 million – Fidelity Investments, Scottrade, E*Trade, Charles Schwab The most recent declared losses were in a brokerage scam. A Russian national was charged in the US with $1. 4 million in computer and hacking crimes. $1 million was stolen from stock brokerages Fidelity Investments, Scottrade, E*Trade, and Charles Schwab.The rest of the money was taken from fraudulent tax refunds, with the stolen identities of more than 300 people. Gains To Hackers * To use your computer: * as an Internet Relay Chat (IRC) server – hackers wouldn't want to discuss openly about their activities on their ‘own' servers * as Storage for Illicit Material (ex. pirated software, pirated music, pornography, hacking tools etc) * as part of a DDoS Attack – where many computers are controlled by hackers in an attempt to cause resource starvation on a victim's computers or networks * To steal services and/or valuable files For thrill and excitement * To get even – maybe an I T staff who was terminated, or other parties you've ‘wronged' * As a publicity stunt – an example of which was reported in 1998 by Jim Hu in MTV â€Å"hack† backfires * Knowledge/Experiment/Ethical – some hackers probe a computer system to find its security vulnerabilities and then inform the system administrator to help improve their security * Another possible reason is that the hackers might suffer from a disease called Asperger syndrome (AS).They are people who are very good with numbers and at focusing on a problem for a very long period of time, but are not good in social relationships. How AS can possibly be linked to hacking behavior was discussed more thoroughly by M. J. Zuckerman in his ‘USA Today' article, What fuels the mind of a hacker? * Curiosity * To spy on friends, family members or even business rivals * Prestige – bragging rights in their social circle (particularly if they've hacked high-profile sites or systems) * Intellec tual Challenge Money – although most hackers are not motivated by financial gain; many professional criminals make money by using hacking techniques either to * set up fake e-commerce sites to collect credit card details * gain entry to servers that contain credit cards details * engage in other forms of credit card fraud WORKING OF ATTACKS Before studying about how traffic injection attacks works there are some basic terms we shoud have to know WEP Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) is a shared-secret key encryption system used to encrypt packets transmitted between a station and an AP.The WEP algorithm is intended to protect wireless communication from eavesdropping. A secondary function of WEP is to prevent unauthorized access to a wireless network. WEP encrypts the payload of data packets. Management and control frames are always transmitted in the clear. WEP uses the RC4 encryption algorithm. The shared-secret key is either 40 or 104 bits long. The key is chosen by the syste m administrator. This key must be shared among all the stations and the AP using mechanisms that are not specified in the IEEE 802. 11. FRAMES Both the station and AP radiate and gather 802. 1 frames as needed. The format of frames is illustrated below. Most of the frames contain IP packets. The other frames are for the management and control of the wireless connection. There are three classes of frames. The management frames establish and maintain communications. These are of Association request, Association response, Reassociation request, Reassociation response, Probe request, Probe response, Beacon, Announcement traffic indication message, Disassociation, Authentication, Deauthentication types. The SSID is part of several of the management frames.Management messages are always sent in the clear, even when link encryption (WEP or WPA) is used, so the SSID is visible to anyone who can intercept these frames. Authentication Authentication is the process of proving identity of a sta tion to another station or AP. In the open system authentication, all stations are authenticated without any checking. A station A sends an Authentication management frame that contains the identity of A, to station B. Station B replies with a frame that indicates recognition, addressed to A. In the closed network architecture, the stations must know the SSID of the AP in order to connect to the AP.The shared key authentication uses a standard challenge and response along with a shared secret key. Traffic injection quick HOWTO †¢1 Insert adapter †¢2 Load driver and activate adapter †¢3 Set driver into monitor mode (real 802. 11 mode) †¢4 Set appropriate channel †¢5 Open PF PACKET/RAW socket on interface (Linux only) †¢6 Use your socket and play †¢ Still, you need a 802. 11 stack over your socket and/or good libs †¢ and tools so you can communicate WORKING – This phase of term paper describes the working of attack by using one tool calle d INJECTION WIZARDInjection Wizard is an application for injecting traffic into WEP-protected Wi-Fi networks, like aireplay-ng, but it's much more easy to use and it can work with worse conditions (for example, more interferences, weaker transmitted/received signals, more restricted access points, etc). The higher the traffic of the network, the earlier we will be able to crack a WEP key with tools like aircrack-ng, airsnort, dwepcrack, weplab, WEPAttack, WEPCrack, etc. However, injecting traffic is not easy because you must build or capture a frame that causes a response frame in any other station (that is, a wireless node).This application carries out automatically all the needed actions to build a frame that causes a response in other station. These actions can be summarized in the following sequence of steps: 1. The application scans Wi-Fi networks and shows a list of WEP-protected networks, then it allows the user to select one of them. 2. It joins the selected network and moni tors that network in order to find a data frame. 3. It tries to extract a keystream prefix from the captured frame and then it tries to extend the keystream up to 40 bytes by means of the W.A. Arbaugh's inductive chosen plaintext attack. 4. It tries to find a host (for example, a connected computer, a network device, etc), which has an IP address belonging to a predefined range, by injecting forged ARP packets. 5. After finding an active host, it injects ARP packets targeted at that host. Some of the benefits of this application are easiness of use (due to its graphical interface, automatic operation, etc) androbustness (detection/management of network disconnections, repetition of failed actions, etc).Moreover, the Arbaugh's inductive attack can be performed by any Wi-Fi interface supporting injection in monitor mode, because the interface driver doesn't need any additional patch as it's usual to happen with the Bittau's fragmentation attack. Besides its higher applicability, this attack is generally more reliable than Chop-Chop attack for recovering a keystream of a given size, because it doesn't have to inject any frame larger than needed. This application is distributed under the terms of the GNU General Public License version 2 (read the license. tm file for more details) and comes with absolutely no warranty. The author assumes no responsibility derived from the use or the distribution of this program. The copyright of this application is owned by Fernando Pablo Romero Navarro (May 2010). Injection Wizard has made use of (with convenient modifications) the following free software applications: * scapy (version 2. 0. 1), distributed under the license: GNU GPL version 2. Copyright: Philippe Biondi,2009 (http://www. secdev. org/projects/scapy). * python-wifi (version 0. 3. 1), distributed under the license: GNU LGPL version 2. 1.Copyright: Roman Joost, 2004-2008 Software Requirements For the client application (graphical interface): †¢Any system with a recent Java virtual machine: JRE version 1. 6 or later. For the server application: * A Linux box with a recent kernel, so it should support Wireless Extensions version 22 or later (since kernel version 2. 6. 21) and the mac80211 stack for Wi-Fi interfaces (since kernel version 2. 6. 24, it is supported by many Wi-Fi adapter drivers). * A Wi-Fi network interface driver supporting injection in monitor mode (sometimes it's required to patch the driver for supporting this feature). The iw system command, if it's not provided by your Linux distribution you can get it by installing the aircrack-ng package or by compiling the source code that can be downloaded from: http://wireless. kernel. org/download/iw. * A Python interpreter with version 2. 5, later versions might also work. Instructions 1. Uncompress the injwiz. zip file. 2. Copy the client directory on a system with a Java virtual machine accessible from the command path (for example, launch a shell, enter the client directory, ex ecute the command: java -version and check the command outputs the JRE version number). .Copy the server directory on a Linux box. If the client and server directories weren't copied on the same machine, you should edit the runserver. sh script (in the server directory) and replace the IP address: 127. 0. 0. 1 with the IP address of the Linux box's network interface that is attached to the same network that the client machine (i. e. the computer that hosts the clientdirectory). 4. Enter the server directory and run the script: . /runserver. sh (the Python interpreter should be accessible from the command path. You can check this by running: ython -V from the command line and verifying that the interpreter version is showed). 5. On the client machine, enter the client directory and run either the script: . /runclient. sh (for Linux or Unix-like operating systems providing a shell compatible with the Bourne shell and whose path for the executable file is: /bin/sh) orrunclient. bat (fo r Windows). DESCRIPTION OF TOOLS The tools used for packet injection purposes are divided into two categories Hardware and software 1. Software Serious hackers usually use Linux-based open source penetration test tools from which to launch their attacks.This section details some of the more popular tools that can be used to search out and hack wifi networks. †¢Aircrack-ng: This suite of tools includes 802. 11 WEP and WPA-PSK key cracking programs that can capture wireless packets and recover keys once enough information been captured. Aircrack-ng supports newer techniques that make WEP cracking much faster. This software has been downloaded over 20,000 times. †¢Airjack: An 802. 11 packet injection tool, Airjack was originally used as a development tool to capture and inject or replay packets.In particular, Airjack can be used to inject forged deauthentication packets, a fundamental technique used in many denial-of-service and Man-in-the-Middle attacks. Repeatedly injecting deauthentication packets into a network wreaks havoc on the connections between wireless clients and access points. †¢AirSnort: AirSnort is wireless LAN (CLAN) tool which recovers WEP encryption keys. AirSnort works by passively monitoring transmissions, and then computing the encryption key when enough packets have been gathered.After that point, all data sent over the network can be decrypted into plain text using the cracked WEP key. †¢Cain ;amp; Able: This is a multi-purpose tool that can intercept network traffic, using information contained in those packets to crack encrypted passwords using dictionary, brute-force and cryptanalysis attack methods, record VoIP conversations, recover wireless network keys, and analyze routing protocols. Its main purpose is the simplified recovery of passwords and credentials. This software has been downloaded over 400,000 times. CommView for WiFi: This commercial product is designed for capturing and analyzing wifi network packets. C ommView for WiFi uses a wireless adapter to capture, decode, and analyze packets sent over a single channel. It allows hackers to view the list of network connections and vital IP statistics and examine individual packets. †¢ElcomSoft Wireless Security Auditor: This is an all-in-one cracking solution that automatically locates wireless networks, intercepts data packets, and uses cryptanalysis techniques to crack WPA/WPA2 PSKs.This software displays all available wireless networks, identified by channel number, AP MAC address, SSID, speed, load, and encryption parameters. While these capabilities can be found in open source tools, ElcomSoft provides a more polished product for professional use by wireless security auditors. †¢Ettercap: Ettercap can be used to perform man-in-the-middle attacks, sniff live connections, and filter intercepted packets on the fly. It includes many features for network and host analysis. This shareware has been downloaded nearly 800,000 times. Fi resheep: This is a plug-in to the Firefox browser that allows the hacker to capture SSL session cookies sent over any unencrypted network (like an open wifi network) and use them to possibly steal their owner’s identities. It is extremely common for websites to protect user passwords by encrypting the initial login with SSL, but then never encrypt anything else sent after login, which leaves the cookie (and the user) vulnerable to â€Å"sidejacking.† When a hacker uses Firesheep to grab these cookies, he may then use the SSL-authenticated session to access the user’s account. Hotspotter: Like KARMA, Hotspotter is another wireless attack tool that mimics any access point being searched for by nearby clients, and then dupes users into connecting to it instead. †¢IKECrack: This is an open source IPsec VPN authentication cracking tool which uses brute force attack methods to analyze captured Internet Key Exchange (IKE) packets to find valid VPN user identity an d secret key combinations. Once cracked, these credentials can be used to gain unauthorized access to an IPsec VPN. KARMA: This evil twin attack listens to nearby wireless clients to determine the name of the network they are searching for and then pretends to be that access point. Once a victim connects to a KARMA evil twin, this tool can be used to redirect web, FTP, and email requests to phone sites in order to steal logins and passwords. †¢Kismet: Kismet takes an intrusion detection approach to wireless security, and can be used to detect and analyze access points within radio range of the computer on which it is installed.This software reports SSIDs (Service Set Identifiers – used to distinguish one wireless network from another) advertised by nearby access points, whether or not the access point is using WEP, and the range of IP addresses being used by connected clients. †¢NetStumbler: This tool turns any WiFi-enabled Windows laptop into an 802. 11 network det ector. NetStumbler and dozens of similar â€Å"war driving† programs can be used with other attack tools to find and hack into discovered wifi networks. †¢WireShark: WireShark is a freeware LAN analyzer that can be used to passively capture 802. 11 packets being transmitted over a wifi network.This software has been downloaded millions of times. 2. Hardware †¢For hackers that prefer a turn-key package, there are also hardware wireless hacking tools available. We’ve highlighted one called WiFi Pineapple. It’s a simple, small, portable device that can be carried into any hotspot and used to attract any laptop trying to find a wifi access point. The Pineapple uses a technique called an Evil Twin attack. Hackers have used tools like KARMA to do the same thing for years, but with Pineapple, now you can buy a piece of hardware for only $100 that allows you to become a hacker without downloading or installing any software. Here’s what their website say s: â€Å"Of course all of the Internet traffic flowing through the pineapple such as e-mail, instant messages and browser sessions are easily viewed or even modified by the pineapple holder. †REFERENCES http://www. cse. wustl. edu/~jain//cse571-07/ftp/wireless_hacking/index. html http://www. cs. wright. edu/~pmateti/InternetSecurity/Lectures/WirelessHacks/Mateti-WirelessHacks. htm#_Toc77524642 http://www. webopedia. com/TERM/C/cyber_crime. html http://www. wi-fiplanet. com/tutorials/article. php/3568066 file:///C:/Users/jsk/Desktop/Wireless%20Hackers%20101. htm